Are you interested in stories of marriage? For instance, how were marriages conducted in ancient India three to four thousand years ago? Was it anything like how we see marriages today? Consider this: Draupadi’s five husbands, Lord Krishna’s 16,000 wives, the births of Vyasa and Karna to unmarried mothers, or the fact that none of the Pandavas were biologically Maharaja Pandu’s sons—are these just myths, or did they reflect societal norms of the time? What were the concepts of marriage and extramarital relations in that era? Let us embark on a journey into ancient India amidst the festive tunes of modern weddings to explore the history of marriage, marital relationships, and sexuality. We will also examine the connections between these historical accounts and the tales from ancient epics.
The Evolution of Marriage in Ancient India
India’s civilization is much older than 3,000–4,000 years. However, when we look at the period before the Vedic era, during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization or earlier, we have only vague ideas about society and daily life. Detailed accounts of marriage customs from that time are missing. Yet, the concept of marriage existed even then. Marriage fundamentally institutionalizes human relationships, sexuality, procreation, and family life. Animals like dogs, cats, or cows reproduce, but they don’t establish marital bonds or family systems. Early humans were similar. As humans became civilized and societies formed, rules and structures were introduced to regulate sexuality and build family units, which eventually led to the concept of marriage. Over time, marriage evolved significantly. Think about it—what marriage looked like in our grandparents’ time was different from our parents’ era, and today, it’s changing even more. If it has changed so much in just 50–60 years, imagine how different it must have been thousands of years ago!
Due to the lack of concrete evidence, we begin our discussion of marriage in ancient India from the Vedic period, roughly 3,000–4,000 years ago. Linguistic and historical analyses date the Rigveda to around 1500 BCE, though some may place it earlier. Let’s delve into the world of Rigvedic marriages to understand the roots of this institution.
Marriage in the Rigvedic Era
In primitive societies, there were no strict rules about who could marry whom. Sexual relationships among adults within a community were common, ensuring the continuity of their lineage. Back then, procreation was the priority, even within familial relationships—a trait observed in animal societies. Over time, humans realized that inbreeding harmed offspring's health, leading to the practice of exogamy (marriage outside one’s group). In the Rigveda, we find references to young men bringing brides from other villages. The Sanskrit words vivaha (marriage) and vadhu (bride) literally mean “to carry or bring a bride.”
The Rigvedic era also saw matchmakers, referred to as didhishu, who connected brides and grooms—much like today’s marriage brokers. Interestingly, marriages during this time often involved a woman being married to all the brothers in a family, a custom later referred to as polyandry. The Rigveda and Atharvaveda mention such practices. The husband’s younger brother was called devar, derived from the term dvibar or “second husband.” A widow would marry her deceased husband’s brother, a practice evident in Rigvedic hymns. The custom persisted until around the 1st–2nd century BCE when texts like the Apastamba Dharmasutra documented it. For example, Draupadi in the Mahabharata was married to all five Pandavas, a practice justified in the epic as aligning with ancient norms.
Marriage in the Mahabharata
Though the Mahabharata was written centuries after the Rigvedic era, it evolved over time and reflects a blend of ancient and later traditions. The Mahabharata mentions four types of marriages: Brahma, Gandharva, Asura, and Rakshasa. Among these, only Brahma marriages resembled today’s ceremonies, involving rituals, mantras, and the gifting of the bride. The other types were less formal.
Gandharva marriage, popular among Kshatriyas, involved mutual consent between bride and groom, often without rituals. For instance, King Dushyanta married Shakuntala in this way. Rakshasa marriages involved abducting the bride, as seen when Krishna abducted Rukmini or when Bhishma captured the Kashi princesses for his brother. Asura marriages, where the groom paid a price for the bride, were common among ancient non-Aryan communities. This tradition persisted even into the Mahabharata era.
Inter-caste and inter-community marriages were also prevalent during this time. For instance, kings from Bengal and surrounding regions attended Draupadi’s swayamvara (bride-selection ceremony), showing that Aryan and non-Aryan societies mingled socially and culturally.
Polygamy and Polyandry in Ancient India
Polygamy was widespread in ancient India, especially among kings and elites. The Ramayana’s King Dasharatha had three wives, while the Mahabharata mentions many instances of kings with multiple wives. Krishna reportedly had 16,000 wives, though this number might be symbolic or exaggerated by scribes. Conversely, polyandry was rare but not unheard of—Draupadi’s marriage to the Pandavas is the most notable example. The Rigveda also records instances of women marrying multiple men, reflecting a society still experimenting with marital norms.
Sexuality in Ancient India
Sexuality in ancient India was neither taboo nor shrouded in shame. Over time, societies imposed restrictions on sexual freedom. In the Rigveda, for example, the twins Yama and Yami discuss the once-common practice of sibling relationships, though Yama rebukes Yami for proposing it. Even in the Mahabharata, extramarital relationships for procreation were not uncommon. For instance, Vyasa fathered Dhritarashtra, Pandu, and Vidura with the widowed queens of Hastinapur to ensure the continuation of their lineage.
This emphasis on procreation reflects the socio-economic realities of the time. A family’s strength relied on its manpower to protect and expand its wealth, primarily land. Hence, having many children, especially sons, was essential. The patriarchal system prioritized lineage and property over individual autonomy, often forcing women into relationships solely for bearing heirs.
Conclusion
The institution of marriage in ancient India evolved significantly over time. From the liberal practices of the Rigvedic era to the more regulated norms of later texts like the Manusmriti, societal changes shaped how relationships and family structures were defined. The stories from Indian epics offer a fascinating glimpse into this transformation, blending myth with societal realities.
Marriage in ancient India was not just a personal or emotional bond but also a social, economic, and political institution. As we uncover these stories, they remind us that concepts of love, marriage, and relationships have always been deeply intertwined with the cultural and historical contexts of their time.
If you’re curious about divorce practices in ancient India, let us know in the comments—perhaps that’s a story for another time!
References
History of Indian Marriages - Atul Sur
Marriage in Bengali Life - Shankar Sengupta
Women in Ancient India - Kshitimohan Sen
Collected Essays - Sukumari Bhattacharya
Vashishtha Samhita - Manmathanath Dutta
Rigveda Samhita - Ramesh Chandra Dutta
Kautilya's Arthashastra
Manusmriti - Upendranath Bandyopadhyay
Women's Rights - Gunda Majumdar
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